Scholasticism was a method of learning taught by the academics Academia, Acadème, or the Academy are collective terms for the community of students and scholars engaged in higher education and research (scholastics, school people, or schoolmen) of medieval universities A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university is a corporation that provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of circa 1100–1500. Scholasticism was part of the attempt that medieval Christians made to reconcile ancient classical philosophy Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. It is distinguished from other ways of addressing fundamental questions by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. The word "philosophy" comes from the with Christianity. The synthesis of Greek Philosophy and medieval Christian Doctrine is the heart of scholasticism. (See also Christian apologetics Christian apologetics is a field of Christian theology that aims to present a rational basis for the Christian faith, defend the faith against objections, and expose the perceived flaws of other world views. Christian apologetics have taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul of Tarsus, including writers such as Origen and Augustine.)

Scholasticism is not a philosophy or a theology in itself, but rather a method for learning. A strong emphasis is placed on dialectical reasoning Dialectic is a method of argument, which has been central to both Eastern and Western philosophy since ancient times. The word "dialectic" originates in Ancient Greece, and was made popular by Plato's Socratic dialogues. Dialectic is rooted in the ordinary practice of a dialogue between two people who hold different ideas and wish to to resolve contradictions In classical logic, a contradiction consists of a logical incompatibility between two or more propositions. It occurs when the propositions, taken together, yield two conclusions which form the logical, usually opposite inversions of each other. Illustrating a general tendency in applied logic, Aristotle’s law of noncontradiction states that “. Because of this emphasis on methodology, scholasticism was eventually applied to many other fields of study.

The main figures of scholasticism were Peter Abelard Peter Abelard (1079 – April 21, 1142) was a medieval French scholastic philosopher, theologian and preeminent logician. The story of his affair with and love for Héloïse has become legendary. The Chambers Biographical Dictionary describes him as "the keenest thinker and boldest theologian of the 12th Century", Albertus Magnus Saint Albertus Magnus, O.P. , also known as Saint Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, was a Dominican friar and bishop who achieved fame for his comprehensive knowledge of and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. Those such as James A. Weisheipl and Joachim R. Söder have referred to him as the greatest German, Duns Scotus Blessed John Duns Scotus, O.F.M. (c. 1265 – 8 November 1308) was one of the more important theologians and philosophers of the High Middle Ages. He was nicknamed Doctor Subtilis for his penetrating and subtle manner of thought, William of Ockham William of Ockham (c. 1288 - c. 1348) was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher, from a place named Ockham in Yorkshire, or possibly Surrey. He is considered — along with Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and the Islamic scholar Averroes — to be one of the major figures of medieval thought and was at the centre of the major, Bonaventure Bonaventure , born John of Fidanza (Italian: Giovanni di Fidanza), was an Italian medieval scholastic theologian and philosopher, the eighth Minister General of the Order of Friars Minor. He was a Cardinal Bishop of Albano. He was canonized on 14 April 1482 by Pope Sixtus IV and declared a Doctor of the Church in the year 1588 by Pope Sixtus V. He and Thomas Aquinas Saint Thomas Aquinas, O.P. was an Italian priest of the Catholic Church in the Dominican Order, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, known as Doctor Angelicus and Doctor Communis. He is frequently referred to as Thomas because "Aquinas" refers to his residence rather than his surname. Thomas Aquinas's greatest work, Summa Theologica The Summa Theologica or the Summa Theologiæ or simply the Summa, written 1265–1274) is the most famous work of Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274), although it was never finished. It was intended as a manual for beginners as a compilation of all of the main theological teachings of the time. It summarizes the reasoning for almost all points of, is usually seen as the last fruits of Scholasticism.

Etymology

The terms "scholastic" and "scholasticism" derive from the Latin Latin or sometimes Roman is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Although often considered a dead language, in view of the fact that it has no native, fluent speakers, Latin continues to be taught in schools and has been, and currently is, used in the process of new word production in modern languages from many word scholasticus (Greek Greek , an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, is the language of the Greeks. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical ancient Greek literature and the New Testament of: σχολαστικός),^[1] which means "that [which] belongs to the school." The "scholastics" were, roughly, "schoolmen."

History

Early Scholasticism

The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the Carolingian Renaissance The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival occurring in the late eighth and ninth centuries, with the peak of the activities occurring during the reigns of the Carolingian rulers Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. During this period there was an increase of literature, writing, the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, of the Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages was the period of European history lasting from the 5th century to approximately 1000. The Early Middle Ages followed the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and preceded the High Middle Ages . The period saw a continuation of trends begun during the decline of the Roman Empire, including population decline, especially in. Charlemagne Charlemagne was King of the Franks from 768 and Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum) from 800 to his death. He expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe. During his reign, he conquered Italy and was crowned Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800. This temporarily made, advised by Peter of Pisa Peter of Pisa was a grammarian of the Early middle ages. He originally taught at Pavia. In 776, after the conquest of the Lombard Kingdom, Charlemagne summoned him to his court to teach Latin. Peter was a friend of Alcuin. He returned about the year 790 to Italy where he died no later than 799. His work provides us an insight into the workings of and Alcuin of York Alcuin of York or Ealhwine, nicknamed Albinus or Flaccus (730s or 740s – May 19, 804) was a scholar, ecclesiastic, poet and teacher from York, Northumbria. He was born around 735 and became the student of Ecgbert at York. At the invitation of Charlemagne, he became a leading scholar and teacher at the Carolingian court, where he remained a, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland, and by decree in AD 787 established schools in every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name scholasticism is derived, became centres of medieval learning.

The period of early scholasticism coincided with the growth of early Islamic philosophy Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar and lasting until the 6th century AH (late 12th century CE). The period is known as the Islamic Golden Age, and the achievements of this period had a crucial influence in the development (in the works of Alkindus Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq al-Kindī (c. 801–873 CE), also known to the West by the Latinized version of his name Alkindus, was an Arab Iraqi polymath: an Islamic philosopher, scientist, astrologer, astronomer, cosmologist, chemist, logician, mathematician, musician, physician, physicist, psychologist, and meteorologist.[verification, Alfarabi Abū Naṣr al-Fārābī known in the West as Alpharabius (c. 872 – between 14 December 950 and 12 January 951), was a Muslim polymath and one of the greatest scientists and philosophers of the Islamic world in his time. He was also a cosmologist, logician, musician, psychologist and sociologist, Avicenna Abū ‘Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn ‘Abd Allāh ibn Sīnā', known as Abū Alī Sīnā or, more commonly, Ibn Sīnā (Arabic: ابن سینا‎), but most commonly known in English by his Latinized name Avicenna (Greek: Aβιτζιανός, Avitzianós), (c. 980 - 1037) was a polymath of Persian origin and the foremost physician and philosopher of his, Algazel Abū Ḥāmed Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (Persian/Arabic:ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالي), often Algazel in English, was an Islamic theologian, jurist, philosopher, cosmologist, psychologist and mystic of Persian origin, and remains one of the most celebrated scholars in the history of Sunni Islamic thought. He and Averroes Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd , better known just as Ibn Rushd (Arabic: ابن رشد‎), and in European literature as Averroes (pronounced /əˈvɛroʊ.iːz/) (1126 – December 10, 1198), was an Andalusian Muslim polymath; a master of Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic, psychology,) and Jewish philosophy Jewish philosophy includes all philosophical activity carried out by Jews, or, in relation to the religion of Judaism. Jewish philosophy, until modern Enlightenment and Emancipation, was pre-occupied with attempts to reconcile coherent new ideas into the tradition of Rabbinic Judaism; thus organizing emergent ideas, that are not necessarily Jewish, (especially in the case of Maimonides Moses Maimonides, also known as Rambam, was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher; one of the greatest Torah scholars of the Middle Ages. He was born in Córdoba, Spain on Passover Eve, 1135, and died in Egypt on 20th Tevet, December 12, 1204. He worked as a rabbi, physician and philosopher in Morocco and Egypt. With the contemporary Muslim and Gersonides Levi ben Gershon, better known by his Latinised name as Gersonides or the abbreviation of first letters as RaLBaG , philosopher, Talmudist, mathematician, astronomer/astrologer. He was born at Bagnols in Languedoc, France. According to Abraham Zacuto and others, he was the son of Gerson ben Solomon Catalan). From the 8th Century, the Mutazilite Muʿtazilah is a distinct Islamic school of speculative theology that flourished in the cities of Basra and Baghdad during the 8th–10th centuries AD. It is still adopted by a small, dispersed minority of Muslim intellectuals. Adherents are usually not accepted by Sunni scholars due to the Mu'tazili belief that human reason is more reliable than school of Islam Islam (Arabic: الإسلام‎ al-’islām, pronounced [ʔislæːm] [note 1]) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of their one, incomparable God (Arabic: الله‎, Allāh), and by the Prophet of Islam Muhammad's teachings and normative example (in Arabic called, compelled to defend their principles against the more orthodox Ash'ari The Ashʿari theology is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (d. 324 AH / 936 AD). The disciples of the school are known as Ash'arites, and the school is also referred to as Ash'arite school school, looked for support in philosophy. They were among the first to pursue a rational theology, Ilm-al-Kalam Kalām is the Islamic philosophical discipline of seeking theological principles through dialectic. The term is derived from the Arabic phrase, kalām Allāh, meaning 'Word of God', as the phrase is used in descriptions of the Qur'an. Thus, kalām in Islamic practice relates to the discipline of seeking theological knowledge through debate and, which can be seen as a form of scholasticism. Later, the philosophical schools of Avicennism Avicennism is a school of early Persian Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. The school was founded by Avicenna (Ibn Sina), an 11th-century Persian philosopher who attempted to redefine the course of early Islamic philosophy and channel it into new directions. His metaphysical system is built on ingredients and Averroism Averroism is the term applied to either of two philosophical trends among scholastics in the late 13th century, the first of which was based on the Arab philosopher Averroës or Ibn Rushd's interpretations of Aristotle and his reconciliation of Aristotelianism with the Islamic faith.[citation needed] European philosophers in turn applied these exerted great influence on scholasticism (see Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe were numerous, affecting such varied areas as art, architecture, medicine, agriculture, music, language, education, law, and technology. From the 11th to the 13th century, Europe absorbed knowledge from the Islamic civilization. Of particular importance was the rediscovery of the ancient classic texts, most).

During this period, knowledge of the Greek language Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic , Classical (c. 5th–4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine (& had vanished in the west except in Ireland, where it was widely dispersed in the monastic schools.^[2] Irish scholars had a considerable presence in the Frankish court Carolingian Empire is a historiographical term which has been used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty. This dynasty is seen as the founders of France and Germany. Depending on one's perspective, this Empire can be seen as the later history of the Frankish Realm or the early history of France and of the Holy Roman, where they were renowned for their learning.^[3] Among them was Johannes Scotus Eriugena Johannes Scotus Eriugena (also Johannes Scotus Erigena, Johannes Scottus Eriugena, John the Irishman), was an Irish theologian, Neoplatonist philosopher, and poet. He is known for having translated and made commentaries upon the work of Pseudo-Dionysius, one of the founders of scholasticism.^[4] Eriugena was the most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period, and an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality.^[3] He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language, and translated many works into Latin, affording access to the Cappadocian Fathers The Cappadocian Fathers are Basil the Great (330-379), who was bishop of Caesarea; Basil's brother Gregory of Nyssa (c.330-395), who was bishop of Nyssa; and a close friend, Gregory Nazianzus (329-389), who became Patriarch of Constantinople . The Cappadocia Region, in modern-day Turkey, was early a site of Christian activity, with several and the Greek theological tradition Eastern Orthodox Christian theology is the theology particular to the Eastern Orthodox Church. It is characterized by monotheistic Trinitarianism, belief in the Incarnation of the Logos , a balancing of cataphatic theology with apophatic theology, a hermeneutic defined by Sacred Tradition, a concrete ecclesiology, a robust theology of the person,.^[3]

The other three founders of scholasticism were the 11th century scholars Peter Abelard Peter Abelard (1079 – April 21, 1142) was a medieval French scholastic philosopher, theologian and preeminent logician. The story of his affair with and love for Héloïse has become legendary. The Chambers Biographical Dictionary describes him as "the keenest thinker and boldest theologian of the 12th Century", Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury Anselm of Canterbury was an Italian, a Benedictine Catholic monk, a philosopher, and a prelate of the church who held the office of Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109. Called the founder of scholasticism, he is famous in the West as the originator of the ontological argument for the existence of God. In 1720, Anselm was recognized as a.^[4] Anselm is sometimes misleadingly called the "Father of scholasticism," owing to the prominence accorded to reason in his theology. Rather than establish a position by appeal to authority, he used argument to demonstrate why what he believed on authority must be so.

The period also saw the beginning of the 'discovery' of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West. As early as the 10th century, scholars in Spain had begun to gather translated texts, and in the latter half of that century began transmitting them to the rest of Europe.^[5] After the Reconquista The Reconquista was a period of nearly 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula succeeded in retaking (and repopulating) the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim Al-Andalus Province. The Islamic conquest of the Christian Visigothic kingdom in the eighth century (begun 710–12) extended over almost of the 12th century, however, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars, who were now able to work in 'friendly' religious territory.^[6] As these Europeans encountered Islamic philosophy, they opened a wealth of Arab knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.^{[7][citation needed]}

At the same time Anselm of Laon systematised the production of the gloss A Gloss is a brief notation of the meaning of a word or wording in a text. It may be in the language of the text, or in the reader's language if that is different on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of dialectic Dialectic is a method of argument, which has been central to both Indic and Western philosophy since ancient times. The word "dialectic" originates in Ancient Greece, and was made popular by Plato's Socratic dialogues. Dialectic is based on a dialogue between two or more people who hold different ideas and wish to persuade each other (the middle subject of the medieval trivium In medieval universities, the trivium comprised the three subjects taught first: grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The word is a Latin term meaning “the three ways” or “the three roads” forming the foundation of a medieval liberal arts education. This study was preparatory for the quadrivium. The trivium is implicit in the De nuptiis of) in the work of Abelard Peter Abelard (1079 – April 21, 1142) was a medieval French scholastic philosopher, theologian and preeminent logician. The story of his affair with and love for Héloïse has become legendary. The Chambers Biographical Dictionary describes him as "the keenest thinker and boldest theologian of the 12th Century", and the production by Peter Lombard Peter Lombard or Petrus Lombardus; was a scholastic theologian and bishop and author of Four Books of Sentences, which became the standard textbook of theology, for which he is also known as Magister Sententiarum of a collection of Sentences The Four Books of Sentences is a book of theology written by Peter Lombard in the twelfth century. It is a systematic compilation of theology, written around 1150; it derives its name from the sententiae or authoritative statements on biblical passages that it gathered together or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities.

High Scholasticism

The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally seen as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Scholars such as Adelard of Bath travelled to Sicily and the Arab world, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid’s Elements.^[8] Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.^[9] William of Moerbeke's translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped in forming a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, and particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions they had previously relied on, and which had distorted or obscured the relation between Platonic and Aristotelian systems of philosophy.^[10] His work formed the basis of the major commentaries that followed.

The universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two main orders founded in this period were the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The Franciscans were founded by Francis of Assisi in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was Bonaventure, a traditionalist who defended the theology of Augustine and the philosophy of Plato, incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only discover truth when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith. Other important Franciscan writers were Duns Scotus, Peter Auriol and William of Ockham.

By contrast, the Dominican order, founded by St Dominic in 1215 placed more emphasis on the use of reason and made extensive use of the new Aristotelian sources derived from the East, and Moorish Spain. The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful^{[citation needed]} synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy. Aquinas placed more emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the Neoplatonic and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early scholasticism. Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the "errors" of the Commentator Averroes.

Late Scholasticism

Lutheran Scholasticism

Neo-Scholasticism

The revival and development from the second half of the nineteenth century of medieval scholastic philosophy, sometimes called neo-Thomism.

Post-Thomistic Scholasticism

Academic Scholasticism went into decline in the 1970s when the Thomistic revival that had been spearheaded by Maritain, Gilson, and others came to an end. Partly, this was because Thomism had ceased to be a living philosophy engaging the questions of the day, and had become a quest to understand the historical Aquinas, and also because at the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council the proponents of what previous popes had termed "Modernism" were able to gain the upper hand (v. e.g. Wiltgen, R. The Rhine flows into the Tiber New York 1967). Still, those who had learned Scholastic philosophy continued to have unresolved questions about how the insights of the medieval synthesis could be applied to contemporary problems. This conversation left the academic environment for internet discussion groups such as Aquinas,^[11] Christian Philosophy,^[12] and Thomism,^[13] and websites such as Open Philosophy,^[14] where it continues today.

Scholastic Method

The scholastics would choose a book (say, the Bible) by a renowned scholar, auctor (author), as a subject for investigation. By reading it thoroughly and critically, the disciples learned to appreciate the theories of the author. Other documents related to the book would be referenced, such as Church councils, papal letters and anything else written on the subject, be it ancient or contemporary. The points of disagreement and contention between multiple sources would be written down in individual sentences or snippets of text, known as sententiae.

Once the sources and points of disagreement had been laid out through a series of dialectics, the two sides of an argument would be made whole so that they would be found to be in agreement and not contradictory. (Of course, sometimes opinions would be totally rejected, or new positions proposed.) This was done in two ways.

The first was through philological analysis. Words were examined and argued to have multiple meanings. It was also considered that the auctor might have intended a certain word to mean something different. Ambiguity could be used to find common ground between two otherwise contradictory statements.

The second was through logical analysis, which relied on the rules of formal logic to show that contradictions did not exist but were subjective to the reader.

Scholastic Instruction

Scholastic schools had two methods of teaching. The first was the lectio: a teacher would read a text, expounding on certain words and ideas, but no questions were permitted; it was a simple reading of a text: instructors explained, and students listened in silence.

The second was the disputatio, which goes right to the heart of scholasticism. There were two types of disputationes: the first was the "ordinary" type, whereby the question to be disputed was announced beforehand; the second was the quodlibetal, whereby the students proposed a question to the teacher without prior preparation. The teacher advanced a response, citing authoritative texts such as the Bible to prove his position. Students then rebutted the response, and the quodlibetal went back and forth. Someone took notes on what was said, allowing the teacher to summarise all arguments and present his final position the following day, riposting all rebuttals.

See also

• Actus primus
• Aristotelianism
• Medieval philosophy
• History of science in the Middle Ages
• List of scholastic philosophers
• Neo-Scholasticism
• Renaissance of the 12th century
• Scotism
• Thomism
• Nominalism

References

1. ^ The word Scholasticism is derived from the Latin word scholasticus, the Latinized form of the Greek σχολαστικός (scholastikos), an adjective derived from σχολή (scholē), "school". Online Etymology Dictionary; H.G. Liddell & R. Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon
2. ^ MacManus, p 215
3. ^ ^{a b c} "John Scottus Eriugena". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. 2004-10-17. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scottus-eriugena/. Retrieved 2008-07-21.
4. ^ ^{a b} Toman, p 10: "Abelard himself was… together with John Scotus Erigena (9th century), and Lanfranc and Anselm of Canterbury (both 11th century), one of the founders of scholasticism."
5. ^ Lindberg (1978), p. 60–61.
6. ^ Lindberg (1978), p. 62–65; Palencia, p. 270.
7. ^ Watt
8. ^ Clagett (1982), p. 356.
9. ^ Lindberg (1978), p. 70-72.
10. ^ Fryde
11. ^ http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aquinas/
12. ^ http://groups.yahoo.com/group/xianphil/
13. ^ http://groups.yahoo.com/group/thomism/
14. ^ http://xianphil.org/

Bibliography

• Clagett, Marshall (1982). "William of Moerbeke: Translator of Archimedes". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 126, No. 5) 126 (5): 356–366. http://jstor.org/stable/986212.
• Gallatin, Harlie Kay (2001). "Medieval Intellectual Life and Christianity". http://users.sbuniv.edu/~hgallatin/ht34632e18.html#res.
• Gracia, J. G.; Noone, T. B. (2003). A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages. London: Blackwell. ISBN 0631216723.
• Hyman, J.; Walsh, J. J. (1973). Philosophy in the Middle Ages. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0915144050.
• Kretzmann, N.; Stump, E. (2001). The Cambridge Companion to Augustine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521650186.
• Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "A Greek-English Lexicon". Perseus. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%23101956.
• Lindberg, David C. (1978). Science in the Middle Ages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226482324.
• MacManus, Seumas (1985). Tudor Ireland: Crown, Community, and the Conflict of Cultures, 1470-1603. Great Britain: Longman. ISBN 0582493412.
• Maurer, Armand A. (1982). Medieval Philosophy (2nd ed.). Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. ISBN 0888447043.
• McGavin, John J. (2000). Chaucer and Dissimilarity: Literary Comparisons in Chaucer and Other Late-Medieval Writing. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 0838638147.
• Schoedinger, Andrew B. (1996). Readings in Medieval Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195092937.
• Toman, Rolf (2007). The Art of Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting. photography by Achim Bednorz. Tandem Verlag GmbH. ISBN 978-3-8331-4676-3.

External links

• Scholasticon by Jacob Schmutz
• Medieval Philosophy Electronic Resources
• "Scholasticism". In Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
• Etext of 1908 document about Scholasticism
• Scholasticism in The Catholic Encyclopedia
• Yahoo! directory category: Scholasticism
• The genius of the scholastics and the orbit of Aristotle, article on the influence of scholasticism on later thought
• Medieval Philosophy, Universities and the Church by James Hannam
• (German) ALCUIN - Regensburger Infothek der Scholastik - Huge database with information on biography, text chronology, editions.

Categories: Philosophical schools and traditions | Philosophical traditions | Scholasticism | Christian theological movements | Greek loanwords | Christianity of the Middle Ages | Thomas Aquinas

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